History Chapter- 1 SS (CLASS 10)

 

History          Chapter-         1

The    Rise     of         Nationalism    in         Europe

1.     In 1848,   Frederic           Sorrieu,           a          French artist,  prepared         a    series  of         four     print    visualizing       his dream        of         a    world  made   up        of         ‘democratic    and      social   republic,         as    he        called  them.

2.     Artists     of         the      time    of         the      French Revolution      personified    Liberty as        a          female figure.

3.     According            to        Sorrieu’s         utopian           vision, the      peoples    of         the      world  are       grouped          as        distinct nations,    identified        through           their    flags    and      national          costume.

4.     This         chapter           will      deal     with     many   of         the      issues    visualized        by        Sorrieu.

5.     During     the      nineteenth     century,          nationalism    emerged         as    a          force    which  brought           about sweeping          changes           in    the      political           and      mental world  of         Europe.

6.     The          end      result  of         these   changes           was      the      emergence    of         the      nation-state    in         the      place   of         the multi-national    dynastic          empires           of         Europe.

7.     A  modern           state,   in         which  a          centralized      power exercised    sovereign        control over     a          clearly defined territory,         had    been    developing      over     a          long     period of         time    in    Europe.

8.     But          a          nation-state    was      one      in         which  the      majority    of         its        citizens,           and      not      only     its        rulers, came    to    develop           a          sense   of         common         identity           and    shared history or        descent.

9.     This         chapter           will      look     at         the      diverse processes    through           which  nation-states  and nationalism         came   into    being   in         nineteenth-century    Europe.

The     French Revolution      and      the      idea     of         the      Nation

1.         The        first     clear    expression      of         nationalism    came   with     the  French Revolution      in         1789.

2.         The        political           and      constitutional changes           that     came   in  the      wake   of         the      French Revolution led to        the      transfer  of         sovereignty     from    the      monarchy       to        a          body    of  French citizens.

3.         The        ideas   of         la         patrie  (the     fatherland)     and      le  citoyen (the     citizen) emphasized    the      notion of a      united community  enjoying          equal   rights   under  a          constitution.

4.         The        Estates General           was      elected            by        the      body    of  the      active  citizens            and      renamed         the National   Assembly.

5.         Internal customs          duties  and      dues    were    abolished        and      a  uniform           system of         weights           and measures was      adopted.

6.         The        revolutionaries           further declared          that     it          was      the  mission           and      the      destiny of         the      French nation to  liberate           the      peoples           of         Europe from    despotism.

7.         Students           and      other   members        of         educated        middle  classes began  setting up        Jacobin            club.

8.         Their     activities         and      campaigns      prepared         the      way     for  the      French armies which  moved into Holland,  Belgium,  Switzerland     and      much   of         Italy     in         the      1790’s.

9.         The        French armies began  to        carry    the      idea     of  nationalism    abroad.

10.     Through a          return to        monarchy       Napoleon        had,     no  doubt, destroyed       democracy      in         France, but     in         the  administrative field     he        had      incorporated  revolutionary principles  in         order   to make           the      whole  system more   rational           and  efficient.

11.     The        Civil     Code   of         1804    –          usually known as        the  Napoleonic     Code   -           did       away   with     all privileges    based  on  birth,   established     equality          before the      Law      and      secured  the      right    to property.

12.     Napoleon         simplified        administrative divisions,        abolished        the  feudal system and      freed peasants           from    serfdom          and  manorial         dues.

13.     Transport         and      communication          systems           were    improved.

14.     Businessmen    and      small-scale      producers       of         goods, in  particular,       began  to        realize that uniform   laws,    standardised  weights           and      measures,       and      a          common         national  currency would          facilitate         the      movement      and      exchange  of         goods  and      capital from    one      region to another.

15.     In           many   places  such    as        Holland           and      Switzerland,  Brussels,         Mainz, Milan, Warsaw,          the French      armies were  welcomed       as        harbingers      of         Liberty.

16.     It           became           clear    that     the      new     administrative  arrangements did       not      go        hand   in         hand   with political  freedom.

17.     Increased          taxation,         censorship,     forced conscription   into     the  French armies required          to conquer      the      rest      of         the  Europe,           all        seemed           to        outweigh        the      advantages  of         the administrative      changes.

The     Making           of         Nationalism    in         Europe

1.     Germany, Italy     and      Switzerland     were    divided into     kingdoms,    duchies           and      cantons           whose rulers   had      their    autonomous   territories.

2.     They        did       not      see      themselves     as        sharing a          collective    identity           or        a          common         culture.

3.     The          Habsburg        Empire ruled   over     Austria Hungary.

4.     In Hungary,         half      of         the      population      spoke  Magyar    while   the      other   half      of         the      spoke  a

variety     of         dialects.

5.     Besides    these   three   dominant        groups,            there   also     lived    within the      boundaries     of         the empire.

6.     The          only     tie        binding           these   diverse groups together          was    a          common         allegiance       to        the emperor.

The     Aristocracy     and      the      new     middle class

1.     Socially    and      politically,       a          landed aristocracy      was      the    dominant        class    on        the      continent.

2.     The          members        of         this      class    were    by        a          common    way     of         life       that     cut       across  regional divisions.

3.     Their        families           were    often   connected       by        ties      if    marriages.

4.     This         powerful         aristocracy      was,     however,         numerically     a    small   group. The      growth of         towns and       the      emergence      of    commercial     classes whose existence        was      based  on        production    for the market.

5.     Industrialization began  in         England           in         the      second half      of    the      eighteenth      century,          but      in

France and      parts   of         the      German           states  it          occurred           only     during the      nineteenth     century.

6.     In its        wake,  new     social   groups came   into     being:  a          working-class        population,     and      middle classes made   up        of    industrialists,  businessmen, professional.

7.     It  was      among the      educated,       liberal middle classes that     ideas   of    national          unity   following the  abolition         of         aristocratic    privileges        gained popularity.

What  did       Liberal Nationalism    Stand  for?

1.         In           early-nineteenth-century       Europe were    closely allied   to        the  ideology          of         liberalism.

2.         The        term    ‘liberalism’      derives from    the      Latin    root     liber,  meaning          free.

3.         Liberalism         stood  for       freedom          for       the      individual        and  equality          of         all        before the      law.

4.         It           emphasized    the      concept           of         government    by  consent.

5.         A           constitution    and      representative government    through  parliament.

6.         The        right    to        vote     and      to        get       elected            was  generated       exclusively      to        property-owning        men.

7.         Men      without           property         and      all        women            were  excluded         from    political           rights.

8.         Women and      non-propertied          men     and      women            organised  opposition      movements demanding         equal   political           rights.

9.         The        abolition         of         state-imposed restrictions     on        the  movement      of         goods  and      capital.

10.     A           merchant        travelling        in         1833    from    Hamburg         to  Nuremberg     to        sell      his       goods  would  have

to pass     through           11        customs          barriers           and      pay      a    customs          duty    of         about  5%       at         each    one      of them.

11.     Obstacles          to        economics      exchanges       and      growth by        the  new     commercial     classes,            who argued    for       the      creation  of         a          unified economic        territory          allowing          the  unhindered movement          of         goods, people and      capital.

12.     The        union  abolished        tariff    barriers           and      reduced          the  number           of         currencies       from    over thirty       to        two.

A        New    Conservation  after    1815

1.     Following the      defect  of         Napoleon        in         1815,   European    governments  were    driven by        a          spirit of           conservatism.

2.     Most        conservatives, however,         did       not      propose          a    return to        the      society of         pre-revolutionary days.

3.     That         modernization could   in         fact      strengthen      traditional    institutions     like      the      monarchy.

4.     A  modern           army,   an        efficient          bureaucracy,   a          dynamic    economy,        the      abolition         of         feudalism and serfdom    could   strengthen      the      autocratic       monarchies     of         Europe.

5.     In 1815,   representatives          of         the      European        powers            –    Britain, Russia, Prussia and      Austria – who  had      collectively      defeated    Napoleon,       met     at         Vienna to        draw    up        a          settlement    for Europe.

6.     The          Bourbon         dynasty,          which  had      been    deposed    during the      French Revolution,     was restored   to        power, and    France lost      the      territories       it          had      annexed          under    Napoleon.

7.     German   confederation of         39        states  that     has      been    set       up    by        Napoleon        was      left      untouched.

8.     Autocratic           did       not      tolerate           criticism          and      dissent,    and      sought to        curb     activities         that questioned          the    legitimacy       of         autocratic       government.

The     Revolutionaries

1.     During     the      years   following         1815,   the      fear     of         repression    drove  many   liberal-nationalists underground.

2.     Revolutionary     at         this      time    meant a          commitment   to    oppose monarchical    forms  and      to        fight for           liberty and    freedom.

3.     Giuseppe Mazzini,          born    in         Genoa in         1807,   he        became    a          member          of         the      secret  society of the  Carbonari.

4.     He            was      sent     into     exile    in         1831    for       attempting     a    revolution       in         Liguria.

5.     Mazzini   believed          that     god      had      intended         nations           to    be        the      natural units    of         mankind.

6.     Secret      societies          were    set       up        in         Germany,        France,    Switzerland     and      Poland.

7.     Metternich          described        him      as        ‘The     most    dangerous    enemy of         our      social   order’.

The     Age      of         Revolution:    1830    -           1848

1.     As conservative   regimes           tried    to        consolidate     their    power,    liberalism        and      nationalism came       to        be        increasingly    associated      with     revolution       in         many   regions of         Europe    such    as        the Italian       and      German           states, the      provinces    of         the      Ottoman         Empire,           Ireland and      Poland.

2.     ‘When     the      France sneezes’,         Metternich     once    remarked,       ‘the    rest      of         the      Europe catches cold’.

3.     An            event   that     mobilized        nationalist      feelings           among the    educated        elite     across  Europe was the           Greek  war      of    independence.

4.     Greece     had      been    the      part     of         the      Ottoman         Empire    since    the      fifteenth         century.

5.     Greeks     living   in         exile    and      also     from    many   west    Europeans    who     had      sympathies     for ancient      Greek  culture.

The     Romantic        Imagination    and      national          Feeling

1.         The        development  of         nationalism    did       not      come   about  only     through           wars    and      territorial expansions.

2.         Culture played an        important       role     in         creating           the  idea     of         the      nation: art       and      poetry, stories and      music  helped express           and      shape  nationalist      feeling.

3.         Let         us        look     at         Romanticism, a          culture movement  which  sought to        develop           a          particular form           of  nationalist      sentiments.

4.         Romantic          artists  and      poet    generally         criticised         the  glorification    of         reason and      science and focused    instead on  emotions,       institution       and      mystical          feelings.

5.         Other    romantics       were    through           folk      song,   folk      poetry and  folk      dances that     the      true     spirit of           the      nation.

6.         National feelings           were    kept     alive    through           music  and  languages.

7.         Karol     Kurpinski,        celebrated      the      national          struggles  through           his       operas and      music, turning folk     dances like      the  polonaise        and      mazurka          into     nationalist      symbols.

8.         Language          too      played an        important       role     in         developing  nationalist      sentiments.

9.         Russian language         was      imposed          everywhere.

10.     Many    members        of         the      clergy  in         Poland began  to        use  language         as        a          weapon           of         national resistance.

11.     As          a          result, a          large    number           of         priests and  bishops           were    put      in         jail       or        sent     to        Siberia by  the Russian     authorities      as        punishment    for       their    refusal to  preach in         Russians.

Hunger,         Hardship         and      Popular           Revolt

1.         The        1830s  were    years   of         great   economic        hardship         in  Europe.

2.         The        first     half      of         the      nineteenth     century           saw      an  enormous       increase          in         population.

3.         In           most    countries        there   were    more   seekers            of  jobs     than    employment.

4.         Population        from    rural    areas   migrated         to        the      cities   to  live      in         overcrowded  slum.

5.         Food     shortage         and      widespread     unemployment          brought  the      population      of         Paris    out      on        the roads.

6.         National Assembly        proclaimed     a          republic,         granted  suffrage           to        all        adult   males  above  21, and  guaranteed     the      right    to        work.

7.         Earlier,  in         1845,   weavers          in         Silesia  had      lead     a  revolt  against contractors     who     supplied them raw      material          and  gave    them   orders for       finished           textile.

8.         On         4          June    at         2          p.m.     a          large    crowd  of  weavers          emerged         from    their    homes and      marched         in pairs      up        to        the      mansion          of         their    contractors  demanding     higher wages.

9.         The        contractors     fled      with     his       family  to        a  neighbouring  village which, however,         refused           to shelter  such    a          person.

10.     He         returned         24        hours  later    having requisitioned  the  army.

11.     In           the      exchange        that     followed,        eleven weavers  were    shot.

1848:  The      Revolution      of         the      Liberals

1.     The          poor,   unemployment          and      starving           peasants         and    workers           in         many   European countries    in         the      years    1848,   a          revolution       led       by        the      educated        middle    classes was      under way.

2.     Men         and      women            of         the      liberal middle classes combined    their    demands         for constitutionalism  with     national          unification.

3.     They        drafted            a          constitution    for       a          German    nation to        be        headed           by        a          monarchy       subject to    a parliament.

4.     Wilhelm  IV,        King     of         Prussia,           rejected          it          and    joined other   monarchs        to        oppose the      elected assembly.

5.     While      the      opposition      of         the      aristocracy      and      military    became           stronger,         the      social   basis    of parliament eroded.

6.     The          issue    of         extending       political           rights   to        women    was      a          controversial  one      within the liberal       movement.

7.     Women   had      formed            their    own     political           associations,    founded          newspaper      and      taken   part in political           meeting    and      demonstrations.

8.     Women   were    admitted         only     as        observers        to        stand   in    the      visitors’           gallery.

9.     Monarchs            were    beginning        to        realize that     the      cycles  if    revolution       and      repression      could   be ended        by        granting    concessions    to        the      liberal-nationalist       revolutionaries.

The      Making           of         German           and      Italy

Germany         –          can      the      Army   be        the      Architect         of         a            National

1.     After         1848,   nationalism    in         Europe moved away   from    its     association     with     democracy      and revolution.

2.     This           can      be        observed         in         the      process           by     which  Germany         and      Italy     came   to        be        unified as nation-states.

3.     Nationalist           feelings           were    widespread     among middle-class     Germans.

4.     This           liberal initiative         to        nation-building           was,     however,     repressed        by        the      combined       forces of          the      monarchy     and      the      military,          supported       by        the      large     landowners    of         Prussia.

5.     Prussia      took    on        the      leadership      of         the      movement.

6.     Three        wars    overseen         years-with       Austria,           Denmark,        and     France-ended in         Prussian          victory and      completed      the     process           of         unification.

7.     The           nation-building           process           in         Germany         had     demonstrated the      dominance     of         Prussian state power.

8.     The           new     state    placed a          strong emphasis        on     modernising   the      currency,         banking,          legal    and judicial     systems           in         Germany.

Italy     Unified

1.         Like        Germany,        Italy     too      had      a          long     history of  political           fragmentation.

2.         Italians  were    scattered        over     several dynastic          states  as  well     as        the      multi-national Habsburg        Empire.

3.         Italy       was      divided into     seven  states.

4.         Italian    language         had      not      acquired         one      common  form    and      still      had      many   regional          and local         variations.

5.         Giuseppe           Mazzini           had      sought to        put      together          a  coherent         programme     for       a          unitary Italian Republic.

6.         Young    Italy     for       the      dissemination of         his       goals.

7.         The        failure of         revolutionary uprising           both    in         1831    and  1848    meant that     the      mantle now fell           on        Sadinia-Piedmont  under  its        ruler    King     Victor  Emmanuel      II          to        unify    the  Italian states   through           war.

8.         Italy       offered            them   the      possibility       of         economic  development  and      political           dominance.

9.         Italy       was      neither a          revolutionary nor      a          democrat.

10.     Italian    population,     among whom  rates    of         illiteracy          were  high,    remained        blissfully unaware      of         liberal-nationalist  ideology.

The     strange           case     of         Britain

1.     The          model of         the      nation or        the      nation-state,   some    scholars          have    argued,           is         Great   Britain.

2.     It  was      the      result  of         a          long-drawn-out          process.

3.     There       was      no        British nation prior    to        the      eighteenth    century.

4.     ‘United    Kingdom         of         great   Britain’ meant, in         effect,  that    England           was      able     to        impose its influence    on        Scotland.

5.     The          British parliament      was      henceforth      dominated      by        its    English members.

6.     Ireland    was      forcibly            incorporated  into     the      United Kingdom    in         1801.

7.     British     flag,     the      national          anthem,          the      English language    –          were    actively           promoted       and      the older         nations    survived          only     as        subordinate    partners          on        this    union.

Visualising     the      Nation

1.     While      it          was      easy     enough           to        represent        a    ruler    through           a          portrait           or        a          statue.

2.     In other   words  they     represented    a          country           as        if          it    were    a          person.

3.     Nations   were    then    portrayed       as        a          female figure.

4.     The          female figures became           an        allegory          of         the    nation.

5.     Christened          Marianne,       a          popular           Christian         name,    which  underlined      the      idea     of         people’s nation.

Nationalism   and      Imperialism

1.     By  the      quarter           of         the      nineteenth     century      nationalism    no        longer retained          its        idealistic liberal-democratic            sentiment       of         the      first     half      of         the      century,          but      became           a          narrow creed with       limited      ends.

2.     The most    serious source of         nationalists     tension           in         Europe      after    1871    was      the      area     called the        Balkans.

3.     The Balkans           was      a          region of         geographical   and      ethnic      variation. ( G-L)

4.     One            by        one      its        European        subjects          nationalities      broke  away   from    its        control and      declared independence.

5.     The Balkan area     became           an        era       of         intense conflict.

6.     The Balkan states  were    jealous of         each    other   and      each    hoped to      gain     more   territory          at         the expense    of         each    other.

7.     But the      idea     that     societies          should be        organized        into      ‘nation-states’ came   to        be        accepted         as natural       and      universal.